The oral microbiome plays a significant role in COVID-19 infection and its severity, highlighting the importance of maintaining a balanced oral microbiota for overall health and immune response.
- Probiotics may have potential benefits in preventing and treating COVID-19. - The oral microbiome plays a role in respiratory infections. - Gut microbiota composition may reflect disease severity and immune responses in COVID-19 patients. - There is an association between periodontitis (gum disease) and the severity of COVID-19 infection. - Probiotics have immunomodulatory effects and may help improve immune responses. - Probiotics have antiviral activity and may help prevent viral infections. - Probiotics may have a beneficial effect on respiratory tract infections. - Probiotics have been studied in the context of COVID-19 and show promise as a complementary therapeutic strategy. - Probiotics may help modulate the gut-lung axis and reduce inflammation in COVID-19. - Probiotics have been shown to have positive effects on oral health. - Probiotics have been studied in the context of COVID-19 transmission and prevention. - Probiotics may have a positive impact on the immune system and nutritional status in COVID-19 patients. - Probiotics may have potential antidiabetic and antioxidant activities. - Probiotics have been investigated as a preventive and treatment strategy for COVID-19. - Probiotics may have a role in mitigating SARS-CoV-2 infection. - Probiotics may have potential benefits in hypertension and angiotensin receptor-blocking drugs. - Targeting the microbiome may be an alternative strategy for fighting SARS-CoV-2 infection. - Diet supplementation, probiotics, and nutraceuticals have been explored in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection. - Viral symptoms in children and SARS-CoV-2 are relevant for pediatric dentists.
This is from Vojnosanitetski pregled 2023 Volume 80, Issue 4, Pages: 289-301 at https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0042-84502300014N
- gastrointestinal microbiome - microbiota - mouth - COVID-19 - probiotics
Vojnosanitetski pregled 2023 Volume 80, Issue 4, Pages: 289-301
https://doi.org/10.2298/VSP220625014N
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Oral microbiome, COVID-19 and probiotics
Nikolić-Jakoba Nataša (University of Belgrade, School of Dental Medicine, Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia) Manojlović Dragica (University of Belgrade, School of Dental Medicine, Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, Belgrade, Serbia)Jovanović-Medojević Milica (University of Belgrade, School of Dental Medicine, Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, Belgrade, Serbia), medojevic.milica@gmail.com
Keywords: gastrointestinal microbiome, microbiota, mouth, COVID-19, probiotics, virus diseases, immunity, symbiosis
Nataša Nikolić Jakoba*, Dragica Manojlović†, Milica Jovanović-Medojević†
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Dental Medicine, *Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, †Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, Belgrade, Serbia
Key words:
gastrointestinal microbiome; microbiota; mouth; COVID-19; probiotics; virus diseases; immunity; symbiosis.
Ključne reči:
mikrobiom, gastrointestinalni; mikrobiota; usta; COVID-19; probiotici; virusne bolesti; imunitet; simbioza.
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic is an ongoing global pandemic that seriously endangers human life and health. Clinical presentation of this disease varies from completely asymptomatic or mild infection to severe complications, post-COVID syndrome, and even lethal outcome 1.
The etiologic agent of COVID-19 disease is the SARS- CoV-2 virus, an RNA-positive single-stranded virus from the Coronaviridae family. Even though coronaviruses primarily cause zoonotic infections, there are currently seven strains that can cause an infection in humans 2. There are five different variants resulting from genetic evolution that have been identified since the onset of the pandemic: Alpha (B.1.1.7), Beta (B.1.351), Gamma (P.1), Delta (B.1.617.2),
and Omicron (B.1.1.529) 3.
The SARS-CoV-2 virus is one of many respiratory viruses where the oropharynx is the primary site of entry and replication 4. It binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptors via its glycoprotein extension (S protein) 4–6. These receptors are present on the tongue, oral and nasal mucosa, salivary glands, and nasopharynx 7–11. The study of Xu et al. 12 showed higher ACE-2 expression in small salivary glands than in lungs during COVID-19 disease, proving that salivary glands represent a significant virus reservoir 13.
Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, basic preventive measures have been applied to prevent the transmission of the virus (hand disinfection, wearing face masks, social distancing, and quarantine). Thirteen different official treatment protocols were introduced, though currently, there is no optimal treatment 1. Antiviral therapy, vaccines, and immunomodulating agents are widely used in
order to reduce disease severity, especially in patients with an increased risk of developing a severe clinical form of the disease 14. While searching for the most effective treatment against the COVID-19 infection, scientists and clinicians have also applied alternative possibilities for improving immunity 15. Recent research data have revealed the interaction of intestinal and respiratory systems in immunity induction, acting as local and systematic modulators of inflammation 16.
The human microbiome is important for blocking inflammation and immunity regulation. The impact of oral microbiome (OM) dysbiosis in patients with COVID-19, which can directly or indirectly favor the development of the infection and affect the pathogenesis of the disease, has been recognized. The human microbiome plays a significant role in the immune response of the host to respiratory viral infections. The modulation of local and systemic immune reactions by using probiotics is one of the most promising effects of probiotics on overall human health 15. The presence and registration of dominant microbial communities in an individual’s OM can enable personalized therapy that aims at restoring the microbiome and preventing the occurrence of many diseases in the future 17.
Many studies on COVID-19 published in the past three years have examined the exact mechanism of virus replication at the primary site of infection, as well as the role of OM on SARS-CoV-2 virus binding capacity and infection development 4, 5, 9, 18–25. The goal of this review was to evaluate the role of OM in the prevention of SARS-Cov-2 virus infection and its impact on the severity of COVID-19 clinical presentation. In addition, the aim of this literature review was to present possible preventive and therapeutic applications of probiotics which were used as one of the
Correspondence to: Milica Jovanović-Medojević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Department of Restorative
remedies against SARS-Cov-2 virus infection. This review focuses on the analysis of oral microbiota during the COVID-19 infection and gives us new insights into the relationship between microbiota and probiotics.
Oral microbiome
The human OM is the genome of all microorganisms which inhabit the oral cavity. The term “microbiota” refers to a specific and unique composition of microbial population that affects health and varies from person to person. In many studies, these two terms are equated 26–28.
Oral flora is the second largest and one of the most di- verse microbiomes in the human body, right after the intes- tines, which weigh about 2 kg 29–32. The composition of oral flora is heterogeneous and contains over 1,000 different bac- terial species, viruses, fungi, helminths, protozoa, and ar- chaea that persist in mutual balance but also in symbiosis with the host 23, 33–35. Each person has a complex of microor- ganisms, and everyone carries an individual microbiome that develops over a lifetime. The composition and diversity of the OM can be influenced by the following: the duration of pregnancy, delivery method, breastfeeding, genetic factors (sibling microbiota profiles are more similar when compared to the profiles of persons who are not related), environmental conditions (oral hygiene, saliva quality, and quantity), habits (tobacco, alcohol, stress, etc.), diet, certain drugs (antibiotics, antacids, etc.), age (three stages of evolutionary develop- ment: childhood, adulthood, and old age), and individual general health 4, 36–42.
The most common species of bacteria in the OM are representatives of the genera Bacteroides, Synergistes, Ge- mella, Granulicatella, Streptococcus, Veillonella, the phyla Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Tenericutes, Firmicutes, and
Spirochaetes, while oral viruses are mainly composed of eu- karyotic viruses such as Herpesviridae, Papillomaviridae, and Anelloviridae [human papillomavirus (HPV), human cy- tomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)] 32, 43. Myoviridae and Podo- viridae belong to lytic viruses (they rapidly degrade their bacterial hosts), while Siphoviridae are lysogenic viruses that are in balance with the host bacteria. Oral viruses represent a restricting factor for bacterial growth and can control bacte- rial oral populations 44, 45. Research by Peters et al. 46 de- scribed 154 species of commensal fungi and confirmed that the Candida genus was most commonly present in 70% of healthy patients. Recent studies revealed the commensal presence of different genera of protozoa, helminths, and ar- chaea. Nonetheless, their pathogenic potential in the devel- opment of oral diseases is still unexplored 47–49.
Importance of oral microbiome in oral and general health
The oropharyngeal microflora in a healthy host main- tains balanced symbiotic relationships defined as “microbial homeostasis” (eubiosis) 32. The OM is exposed to frequent daily fluctuations that can lead to microbial imbalance (dysbiosis) 50, 51. Microbial balance in the oral cavity is nec- essary because it enables equilibrium between beneficial and harmful microorganisms that interact with each other and can have an inhibitory, stimulating, or synergistic effect on each other 32, 50, 51. The OM contributes to the development of the local immune system. However, its imbalance, along with the complex interaction with the host resistance and various environmental factors, creates conditions for the develop- ment of various oral or systemic diseases (Figure 1) 17, 52, 53. During dysbiosis, the following three changes occur: loss of
Fig. 1 - Impact of microbiota dysbiosis on the overall health of humans 52.
microbial diversity, loss of beneficial microorganisms, and increase in pathogenic microorganisms that are not mutually exclusive and can occur simultaneously 54. As a result, poten- tiating cariogenic and inflammatory bacterial genomes 33, 55 make perfect conditions for the development of diseases such as caries 56–59, periodontal diseases 60–64, and malignant al- terations of oral tissues 65–67.
Many oral microorganisms enter the digestive tract through saliva, thus changing the intestinal microbiome, which plays an important role in digestion and absorption of nutrients, formation of a protective barrier against pathogens, development and regulation of the immune system, enzyme and vitamin production, control of inflammatory reactions, and neuro and psychological regulation 35. Consequently, the connection between the oropharyngeal and intestinal micro- biome sheds new light on inflammatory processes and their therapy. The link between oral and general health is well documented in the literature 35, 50, 52, 68–76. Chronic oral infec- tions lead to the release of proinflammatory mediators, i.e., cytokines that further propagate inflammatory processes and increase the risk of muscle and digestive problems 61, 72, bronchopulmonary diseases 37, 73, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) 53, 67, complications during pregnancy and child- birth 38, 41, 64, 71, 75, cardiovascular diseases 61, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76, obe-
sity 42, liver disease 67, oral cancer 65, pancreatic cancer 77
type 2 diabetes 67, 68, Parkinson’s disease 74, psychiatric dis- orders 78, and colorectal cancer 67. Each disease is character- ized by unique oral and intestinal microbial changes 79. Mi- crobiome rebalancing is closely related to the recovery from the primary disease, which proves the significant role of the microbiome in healing 72, 80.
Maintaining good oral hygiene is, therefore, important in controlling oral bacterial status, maintaining or restoring symbiotic homeostasis, as well as preventing the spread of oral pathogens to other parts of the body 81–83.
Disruption of the oral microbiome during and after SARS-CoV-2 virus infection
Human OM can have a great influence on the regulation of innate and acquired immunity to viral infections 4, which is especially important for viruses that enter the body through the oropharynx 5, 23, 84–86. Aerosol respiratory viruses encounter the OM of the upper respiratory tract and favor its dysbiosis and disease progression 87, 88 (e.g., the microbiome in patients with influenza is characterized by the abundance of genus Pseudomonas) 75. Oral dysbiosis promotes respira- tory infections directly by increasing pathogenic bacteria and aspirating oral pathogens into the respiratory organs. Indi- rectly, it alters the immune response of respiratory epitheli- um and promotes the adhesion of pathogens, cytokine secre- tion, and production of enzymes that interfere with pathogen clearance 23, 89. Even in the case of SARS-CoV-2 virus infec- tion, oral dysbiosis may favor the development of infection by these mechanisms 4. On the other hand, OM can also con- tribute to the regulation of immunity and inflammation blockade 13, 30, 84, 90. The study of Pfeiffer and Sonnenburg 91 showed that oral microbiota commensals could also produce
antiviral compounds (defensins) against several viral genera (Adenovirus, Herpesvirus, Papillomavirus, Orthomyxovirus, and Coronavirus).
The oropharyngeal and intestinal microbiota have the possibility of co-infection with microorganisms originating from the oral cavity. The correlation between the imbalance of OM and the increased number of dysbiotic species may serve as predictive factors for COVID-19 disease 5, 35, 79, 92–104. Ward et al. 24 showed that the severity of COVID-19 disease could be predicted according to the composition of the intes- tinal or OM. Two pathogens, Porphyromonas endodontalis in oral and Enterococcus faecalis in the intestinal microbi- ome, may serve as a predictor of the severity of SARS-CoV- 2 infection. The authors suggested that the key to prioritizing patients who need urgent treatment is the identification of biomarkers that can predict clinical outcomes of COVID-19 disease 24.
Haran et al. 23 described how the dysbiosis of the in- flammatory type of OM, characterized by the members of genera Prevotella and Veillonella, may play an important role in prolonging the duration of COVID-19 symptoms. The genus Veillonella are gram-negative anaerobic cocci that produce large amounts of lipopolysaccharides and may be an additional co-infectious agent (especially Veillonella dispar and Veillonella infantium) 98. The genus Prevotella is highly inflammatory and affects the promotion of SARS-CoV-2 in- fection, thus worsening the severity of the COVID-19 clini- cal presentation 105–107. Haran et al. 23 emphasized the im- portance of the presence of gram-negative bacteria with a liposaccharide component in the capsule (Leptotrichia and various species of genus Veillonella) which can have proin- flammatory effects and cause systemic damage and neuroin- flammation. Due to OM dysbiosis and the presence of patho- gens that promote chronic inflammation (Leptotrichia, Prevotella, and Fusobacterium), myalgic encephalomyelitis and symptoms of neurological diseases (confusion, disorien- tation, slow thinking, and poor concentration after six months) may occur in COVID-19 102–104. The present com- mensals (Prevotella and Neisseria) in OM can act as a local probiotic and counteract the SARS-CoV-2 virus 17. Likewise, the higher relative abundance of the Rothia genus in the pa- tient’s oral flora affects the occurrence of COVID-19 com- plications 108.
Ren et al. 79 identified specific microbial markers of oral microbiota in patients with COVID-19 but also in re- covered patients. The results of this study showed composi- tional and functional changes in OM of COVID-19 pa- tients. During infection, there is an overall decrease in the diversity of oral microorganisms. The number of bacteria that produce lipopolysaccharides was increased, while the number of bacteria that produce butyric acid was de- creased. Thus, by secreting lipids into the bloodstream, mi- crobiome dysbiosis may affect the progression of COVID-
- Ren et al. also noticed a better prognosis in patients with severe COVID-19 who had an OM enriched with Streptococcus (S. parasanguinis). Oral dysbiosis persisted even after the recovery from COVID-19 infection when a constant increase in Porphyromonas and Haemophilus gen-
79
era and a decrease in Leptotrichia, Megasphaera, and Sele- nomonas (Megasphaera is a cariogenic bacterium) 106 gene- ra was detected.
Furthermore, an imbalance in the relative numbers of different bacterial strains and the genera Enterococcus and Enterobacter were present only in patients with COVID-
19 (not observed in the control group of healthy pa- tients) 5. Ward et al. 24 showed that higher quantities of Porphyromonas endodontalis are correlated with an in- crease in severe stages of COVID-19, while higher quanti- ties of Muribaculum intestinale are linked with moderate cases. Cox et al. 95 also highlighted the impact of coinfec- tions on the clinical presentation and mortality of patients with COVID-19. They indicated an association between cariogenic and oral pathogenic bacteria and complications of COVID-19. According to the earlier literature evidence, these bacteria are involved in the pathogenesis of respira- tory and chronic inflammatory systemic diseases (type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, cardiovascular disease), which are also the most common comorbidities associated with the risk of severe complications and death from COVID-19 97, 109, 110. Marouf et al. 101 also observed an abundance of periodontopathogenic bacteria in COVID-19 patients and demonstrated that the presence of periodonti- tis was associated with a 3.5-fold higher risk of admission to intensive care units, a 4.5-fold higher risk of assisted ventilation, and an 8.81-fold higher risk of mortality inde- pendent of other concomitant risk factors. On the other hand, numerous studies reported that interventions aimed at boosting oral hygiene in patients with pneumonia have significantly improved the clinical picture and reduced mortality 23, 35, 105, 107.
The exact genome of oral flora in patients with COVID-
19 is still the focus of scientific interest. Iebba et al. 20 were among the first who had described the bacterial component of OM in patients with COVID-19, pointing to the im- portance of fungi and viruses in defining individual sensitivi- ty. By examining an oropharyngeal swab, Ai et al. 93 found that more than half of COVID-19 patients had co-infection with another virus, such as influenza A or B, rhinoviruses, enteroviruses, or respiratory syncytial virus. Soffritti et al. 5 investigated an association between OM profile and severity of COVID-19 clinical presentation and observed a signifi- cant increase in Herpesviridae viruses, EBV, and HSV-1. EBV infection in patients with COVID-19 has been associat- ed with an increased risk of severe COVID-19 symptoms as well as a fatal outcome 96, 99.
Changes have also been observed in the fungal part of the microbiome, with the appearance of Aspergillus, Nak- aseomices, and Malassezia spp., Candida albicans, Saccha- romyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Malassezia restricta (OM of healthy patients consists only of Candida and Candida cerevisiae, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Malas- sezia restricta) 5. According to Jasinski-Bergner et al. 109, these changes in COVID-19 patients could be an inducing factor influencing the onset of SARS-CoV-2 virus infection because dysbiosis facilitates the activation or reactivation of oral pathogens, which can further impair proper immune
control and lead to deterioration of immune response effec- tiveness.
Ward et al. 24 found that the composition of OM has a high accuracy of COVID-19 severity prediction (84% accu- racy of predicting fatal outcome).
Application of probiotics
With the emergence of increasing antibiotic resistance, new concepts for the prevention and therapy of multidrug- resistant infections are proposed by causing the microbiolog- ical shift of the endogenous microbiota. For this reason, re- search into bactericidal action and antiviral factors of probi- otics became the focus of modern interest 107, 111–113.
Positive effects of probiotics are primarily observed in the treatment of gastrointestinal infections but also in the prevention of various pathological conditions in the field of gastroenterology, allergology, internal medicine, oncology, oral medicine, pediatrics, infectiology, and psychiatry 104–107, 109–114.
Modern therapeutic procedures have introduced chang- es in treatment protocols with a tendency to establish a healthy environment to prevent the development of oppor- tunistic infections and recover the OM. Probiotics are living microorganisms (so-called “good” bacteria) that, if applied in an adequate amount, could establish and maintain the eco- logical balance of microflora. They are safe, non-pathogenic, non-invasive, and non-carcinogenic strains that can perform recolonization and restore symbiosis between the host and the disturbed microbiota 115. Several bacterial genera are most often used as probiotics: Bifidobacterium, Lactobacil- lus, Bacillus, and Pediococcus. The strains used most often are Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactoba- cillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus planta- rum, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus rhamnosus. In ad- dition, fungi can be used as probiotics 112–115.
Probiotics act in complex multifactorial ways. Probiotic bacteria can interfere with the absorption process by directly binding to the virus or inhibiting the entry into the epithelial cells by blocking the host receptor 25. Probiotics can also compete with nutrient pathogens, produce antimicrobial agents, strengthen the intestinal epithelial barrier, and modu- late the immune system of the host 116–118. The performance of probiotics can be twofold – immunostimulatory and im- munoregulatory. A group of immunostimulatory probiotics affects the proliferation of T helper (Th) 1 cells and stimu- lates the production of interleukin (IL)-12, which induces the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in natural killer cells. Immunoregulatory probiotics stimulate regulatory T cells but also suppress proinflammatory responses by induc- ing IL-10 117. Experimental animal models showed that bal- ancing cellular and humoral immune responses mitigates the effects of a “cytokine storm” 25, 119.
The significant role of probiotics in maintaining home- ostasis of the upper respiratory tract microbiome was proven in multiple studies. In addition, it was revealed that oropha- ryngeal probiotics are very effective in maintaining immune
system stability and protecting against viral infections 120–122. Direct and indirect efficiency of various probiotic strains (e.g., Lactococcus lactis JCM 5805 and Bacteroides breve IIT4064) has been proven against influenza virus 123. Probi- otic bacteria release various substances, such as bacteriocins, biosurfactants, lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, and organic acids, which can inhibit virus proliferation 25. Lactobacillus genus produces lactic acid as an antiviral in- hibitory metabolite, thus preventing secondary infections 124. Furthermore, like the genus Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus genus can capture the virus and interfere with the binding of the virus to the receptors of the host cell 125, 126. Nisin and peptide P18 are bacteriocins with antiviral effects against in- fluenza A virus 127. Apart from bacteriocin production, the antiviral ability of oropharyngeal probiotics is also maintained by the stimulatory effect on the innate immune response, which is manifested by an increase in the IFN-γ levels in human saliva ten hours after oral administration of Streptococcus salivarius (strain K12) lozenge 128. Probiotic strains of genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium (such as Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 55730, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus casei 431, Lactobacillus fermentum PCC, and Bifidobacterium infantis 35624) are significant factors in generating immunomodulatory responses during various in- fections 25, 129. In addition, probiotic bacteria have antioxidant potential in neutralizing free radicals. The strains Lactobacil- lus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus plantarum CAI6, Clostrid- ium butyricum MIIAIRI 588, and strains in VSL#3® increase total antioxidant capacity 130. Moreover, by participating in the formation of redox homeostasis, probiotics can inhibit the progression of COVID-19 disease 25.
Probiotics and COVID-19
The proven effectiveness of probiotics both in the treatment and prevention of viral infections was the ra- tionale behind their use in patients with SARS-Cov-2 virus infection 25, 28, 131–135.
In the last three years, studies dealing with the importance and benefits of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 have been conducted (Table 1) 21, 135-143. The use of probiotics, along with other therapies, led to a shorter and easier clinical presentation, with reduced severity of gastro- intestinal and respiratory symptoms, a lower percentage of smell and taste disorders, and less frequent symptoms of post-COVID syndrome 125–143. However, in patients on corti- costeroid therapy, probiotic supplemental therapy is contra- indicated due to their primary disease 135.
The first study that proved the positive effects of probi- otics in the treatment of COVID-19 infection was the 2020 Wuhan study 21. The use of the probiotic strain ENT-K12 (Streptococcus thermophilus) among medical workers in in- stitutions for COVID-19 treatment has reduced the possibil- ity of respiratory infection and lethal outcomes by 80%. This probiotic strain locally releases two antibiotics (salivaricin A2 and B) and reduces the possibility of colonization of β- hemolytic group A streptococci, including Streptococcus py- ogenes (a bacterial pathogen that causes coinfection during
viral infection). The use of probiotics has also reduced the use of antibiotics among the respondents by more than 90% 21.
Block 144 suggested the concomitant use of probiotics in patients with COVID-19, treated with azithromycin, to re- duce the risk of hypercolonization of Candida albicans strains. Nutritional support with probiotic strains of Lactoba- cillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium, and Saccharomyces bou- lardii, along with minerals and vitamins, has reduced the complications of massive antibiotic therapy 145–147.
D’Ettorre et al. 135 compared the incidence of respirato- ry failure and control of symptoms, after probiotic therapy, with different Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, and Bifidobacte- rium strains. The use of probiotics was associated with a lower risk of respiratory failure and faster control of COVID-19 symptoms (especially diarrhea). In patients with a severe clinical picture, the immunomodulatory effects of probiotics may be relevant for the prevention of acute respir- atory distress syndrome and multiple organ failure as a com- plication of cytokine storm 135.
Ceccarelli et al. 147 observed a lower mortality rate after the use of probiotic strains of genera Streptococcus, Bifidobacterium, and Lactobacillus during COVID-19, but with longer hospital stays. However, research by Bozkurt and Bilen 142 showed that in patients with moderate and se- vere COVID-19 symptoms, an additional therapeutic dose of the probiotic strain Bifidobacterium animalis resulted in a shorter hospital stay and lower mortality rates.
Probiotics mechanism of action in COVID-19
The mechanism of probiotic protection against SARS- CoV-2 infections is based on general effective principles, such as inhibition of pathogen adhesion and antimicrobial and immunomodulatory specific properties of different pro- biotic strains 118, 145, 148. These mechanisms can enhance the elimination of the SARS-Cov-2 virus but also act preventive- ly by suppressing bacterial coinfections that correlate with COVID-19 (Figure 2) 118, 148, 149.
During fermentation, probiotic strains produce specific bioactive peptides that block ACE-2 enzyme receptors, thus preventing the SARS-CoV-2 virus from binding to these ac- tive sites 4, 150, 151. The remnants of dead probiotic cells can act as ACE-2 inhibitors as well. These bioactive peptides may modulate blood pressure due to the inhibition of the conversion of angiotensin-I to angiotensin-II. The possible effect of these peptides on reducing the progression of COVID-19 is still being examined 152. The concept of using ACE-2 receptor-blocking drugs as a treatment modality for COVID-19 was first proposed by Fernandez-Fernandez 151. Imai et al. 152 reported that the usage of ACE blockers had a positive effect on the reduction of respiratory distress syn- drome. The study by Singh and Rao 25 confirmed that by binding mucosal cell receptor and ACE-2, probiotic strains interfere with coronavirus and block its binding, while an in- crease of innate immunity is stimulated by releasing intesti- nal mucins from mucosal cells and producing secretory anti- bodies (IgA). The authors stated that the key role in combati-
Fig. 2 - Antiviral mechanisms of probiotics against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
ng coronavirus proliferation is played by modulation of im- mune responses and balance of acquired immunity, produc- tion of inflammatory cytokines, the proliferation of B cells that produce specific antibodies, and activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes that participate in the adaptive immune re- sponse 27. Baindara et al. 126 also showed that some probiotics improved the regulatory activity of T cells and reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, the antiviral effect of probiotics may be achieved by a large number of secreted specific metabolites and bacteriocins 153.
Strengthening the immune response during incubation and the initial phase of COVID-19 disease is crucial in elim- inating the virus and preventing the progression of the dis- ease. The use of certain strains of Bifidobacterium or Lacto- bacillus has a great influence on the elimination of the SARS-CoV-2 virus from respiratory organs 154. The use of probiotics, along with adequate treatment for COVID-19, can significantly reduce the occurrence and duration of vari- ous systemic diseases 154, 155.
The limitations of this comprehensive literature review arise due to the high heterogeneity of studies that investigat- ed the change and impact of oral microbiota during COVID- 19 without knowing the previous status of patients’ OM and because patients with different immune statuses used differ- ent probiotic strains.
It should be emphasized that introducing targeted drugs and beneficial bacteria was of great importance in restoring
the damaged microbiome. Further research should be di- rected to discovering the most effective probiotic strains, doses, and formulations, as well as the interaction of probiot- ics and microbiomes. In addition, the influence of environ- mental factors on the oropharyngeal microbiome, as well as possible coinfection, should be further investigated.
Conclusion
After an extensive review of the literature, it was con- cluded that numerous clinical studies showed that OM might influence resistance to primary infection and be a predictor for disease severity and complications during COVID-19. The use of probiotic strains can inhibit the ad- hesion of pathogens, improve the barrier function of the in- testine and strengthen the immune response. Through these mechanisms, probiotics can reduce the progression and the development of more severe forms of the disease, shorten the hospital stay and reduce the frequency of post-COVID syndrome.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Ph.D., MLIS Jelena Jaćimović and MLIS Ružica Petrović, academic librarians at the Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Belgrade, Ser- bia, for their help in literature access and management.
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Received on June 25, 2022
Revised on February 20, 2023
Accepted on March 3, 2023 Online First March 2023